Order from us for quality, customized work in due time of your choice.
Participation Expectations
For each discussion activity, you are responsible for posting at least one substantive initial response to the discussion questions posed, as well, as a reply to at least two other postings made by your classmates.
Your initial substantive posting should be a thoughtful reflection on at least one aspect of the discussion theme or question posed and can either initiate a line of discussion or be in response to someone else’s posting (i.e., adding your own perspective or additional research to it). Keep in mind that quality is better than quantity and “me too” and “I agree” type postings add little to the conversation. Your postings should demonstrate that you have read and thought about the course material. You are encouraged to reference your course textbook in your postings as well as other relevant outside literature.
Some points to keep in mind:
Be clear and to the point in your postings.
Edit your work. Your posts should be coherent and use proper grammar and spelling.
Keep postings to 300-350 words. Quality is better than quantity.
Contribute your own thoughts about the material you have read.
Support your thoughts by referencing the textbook or other outside literature.
Raise additional questions or points of discussion to stimulate further discussion
If you have questions, show that you have already tried to find a solution.
Respect the viewpoints of your peers. Ask for clarification if you don’t understand a point. Assume good intentions.
Use the proper terminology introduced in the course readings.
When using literature in your postings, make sure to provide references in proper APA Style.
Show respect and sensitivity to peers’ gender, cultural and linguistic background, political, and religious beliefs.
You are strongly encouraged to take the time to review the following documents on writing quality discussion posting and on taking roles in discussions.
PREPARING TO WRITE
1. Read assigned material—critically—and take notes as you read: Who wrote this material (a respected expert? an activist with a specific aim or belief?) Do they have any possible biases? Are studies reliable and valid? (What kind of research was performed?) When was this material written? Are the definitions/conditions/opinions described still accur vant? ate/rele Is an opinion expressed? How might someone disagree? How does this material relate to other concepts and theories you are studying? (Remember, instructors choose readings with a plan in mind—try to imagine why they have assigned this reading) Does the article complement other things you have learned? Is it in opposition? 2. Read and understand the discussion question or topic provided by your instructor • What are you asked to do? (Formulate an opinion? Respond to a question? Explain a concept or theory?) • How are you asked to do this? What kind of information are you expected to include (e.g., supporting quotations or references, examples, etc.) Do you need to bring in outside research? 3. Sort out the finer details • Is there a word maximum? Minimum? (Most posts will be 1‐2 paragraphs maximum). • How many times are you expected to post? (Find out if you are required to post a certain number of times per question, per week, etc.) • How much of your grade is this component worth?Each post? Budget your time accordingly
A.re you expected to respond to other students’ posts? What proportion of original posts versus responses are you asked to provide?
INITIAL POSTS – An initial post is a response to the original question presented by the course instructor, or the opening post on a particular topic (i.e., not responding to other students’ posts). Consider each post a “mini‐thesis,” in which you state a position and provide support for it. If you are responding to a question, be sure to 1. Take a position: Provide a clear answer to the question (incorporate some of the wording of the question in your answer if possible). 2. Offer a reasoned argument: Provide an explanation for your point of view, and use evidence from your text, notes, or outside research (where appropriate) to support your point. 3. Stay focused: End with a summary comment to explain the connection between your evidence and the question (how your evidence proves your point). Your post might also introduce a question or idea that others can follow up on. But make sure you have answered the question first!
Discusssion Marking rubric.
A+ Discussion Post A+
Initial Post
/2.5 points
deliver information that is full of thought, insight, and analysis • make insightful connections to course content • make insightful connections to real-life situations • contain rich and fully developed new ideas, connections, or applications • contain no spelling errors and typos
Question of discussion is –
June 17
Use this discussion area to complete the Reflection Activity in Unit 12.
For the final week of the course, you are asked to reflect on your learning process and what you found useful and not so useful. Please share your thoughts and your learning experience with your group on the discussion board.
Refer to the Outline for the specific dates for this discussion and when your initial response should be posted by. Discussion participation expectations can be found in the Assessments section of the course website.
During the week, be sure to spend some time reviewing and responding to the posts of your discussion group members.
write in 310 words. follow proper guidlibes as given in begning. Use AP7 STYLE OWL PURDE. Provide refrence.
Write in on own words.
Some points to keep in mind:
Be clear and to the point in your postings.
Edit your work. Your posts should be coherent and use proper grammar and spelling.
Keep postings to 300-350 words. Quality is better than quantity.
Contribute your own thoughts about the material you have read.
Support your thoughts by referencing the textbook or other outside literature.
Raise additional questions or points of discussion to stimulate further discussion.
If you have questions, show that you have already tried to find a solution.
Respect the viewpoints of your peers. Ask for clarification if you don’t understand a point. Assume good intentions.
Use the proper terminology introduced in the course readings.
When using literature in your postings, make sure to provide references in proper APA Style.
Show respect and sensitivity to peers’ gender, cultural and linguistic background, political, and religious beliefs.
These are the readings which i find useful are as follows
Readings
In one study conducted in France, 300 women on Facebook were sent a friend request along with a message that contained references to shared similarities of hobbies, birthdate, and interests (Martin, Jacob, & Guéguen, 2013). Three of the following messages were randomly selected to be sent: no mention of the common similarities (i.e., hobbies, birthdate, and interests), one mention of the similarities, and two similarities were mentioned. The results indicated that compliance of the friend request was common when there were two mentions of similarities (Martin et al., 2013). This gives insight into how we select our network on social media: based on similarities.
The power of similar sources in leading to persuasion is one explanation for the nearly $200 million in annual revenue earned by a company you have probably never heard of—Vector Marketing, which sells Cutco kitchen knives. The strategy this company uses is to recruit people (mostly university students) to attend an orientation session in which they learn how to make face‐to‐face sales calls to sell knives. Sellers are encouraged to sell the knives first to family members and friends (supposedly as a way of gaining experience in pitching the product). Then, at the end of these sales presentations, the sellers are told to ask for referrals to other people who might want to buy these knives—and what could be more persuasive than receiving a call about a product that your friend suggested you would want to hear about?
The Tupperware Brands Corporation and their home party was a pioneer in using this technique in the 1950s. Tupperware kitchen and home products are sold at homes, schools, and other community locations where the host invites family, friends, colleagues, and neighbours. The Tupperware representative is also present at these parties and everyone is aware that the host receives a percentage of the sale. The success of this method stems mainly from the act of buying from a friend rather than an unknown salesperson.
CREDIBILITY.
Sources who appear credible, meaning competent and trustworthy, are more persuasive than those who lack credibility (Chaiken & Maheswaran, 1994; Priester & Petty, 2003; Smith, De Houwer, & Nosek, 2012; Verplanken, 1991). This is why doctors are often quoted in advertisements for health‐related products. For children between the ages of 7 and 10, best friends are particularly influential. Barbara Morrongiello and Tess Dawber (2004) from the University of Guelph had children choose between risky or non‐risky alternatives in a variety of play situations. Having made their choice, their best friend was able to persuade them to make the other choice approximately half the time. Peers in general (not just best friends) are also influential with this age group of elementary school‐aged children (Morrongiello & Lasenby‐Lessard, 2007).
We’re also more convinced by sources that we believe are trustworthy, meaning those who don’t have an ulterior motive for convincing us. Thus, if someone tries to convince you to join a health club and you’re aware that the person will receive a month’s free membership if you join, you’re more likely to question his or her credibility as a proponent of the club. Our concern about people’s ulterior motives helps explain why we see expert witnesses who are paid for their testimony as less believable than those who volunteer (Edens et al., 2012).
People who argue unexpected positions—those that seem to go against their own self‐interests—are often especially persuasive because they’re seen as highly credible (Wood & Eagly, 1981). Messages that favour a view that goes against participants’ expectations are seen as more factually based than those that subscribe to the expected side and therefore lead to greater attitude change. In a series of studies conducted in the United States, Taly Reich and Zakary Tormala (2013) examined how contradictions within arguments influenced persuasion.
They found that an individual would most likely be persuaded by a contradiction only when the source was perceived to be from a single, highly credible source.
The credibility of a speaker is particularly influential when people have recently been exposed to another persuasive message (Tormala & Clarkson, 2007). Specifically, when people have just received a persuasive message from a source with low credibility, they’re more persuaded by a message from a moderately credible source than if they had first received a message from a source with high credibility. This study indicates that our evaluation of source credibility is influenced not only by the source’s credentials but also by the credentials of other sources we have recently seen.
Repeated exposure to a persuasive message can also lead individuals to attribute the message to a more credible source that is falsely perceived to exist. In one American study, Danielle Polage (2012) tested how false stories that felt familiar would influence participants into thinking the stories actually were something they read in the news or heard people talking about it. Participants were given five true stories to read (e.g., how drinking tea puts you at a decreased risk of dying if you already had a heart attack), and half of those participants were also given five false stories (e.g., California passing a law that prevents people in debt from opening new credit cards). They were also asked to rate the credibility of each publication. Participants were asked to come back in five weeks where they answered questions about the stories presented initially. The results indicated that those who had read the false stories rated them as more truthful and real rather than something that was fabricated. Additionally, the same participants said that they read and heard of the stories from an outside source, other than the lab. The findings suggest that when one is familiar with a piece of information, one is more likely to think of it as credible or even real.
Even non‐credible sources can become more persuasive over time, a phenomenon known as the sleeper effect (Pratkanis, Greenwald, Leippe, & Baumgardner, 1988). This occurs because over time, people may remember the message, but not remember the speaker. For example, you might read something in Glamour and initially discount it because of its source, but a few months later you might recall the information, but forget that you read it in Glamour and therefore believe it. In one German study about the power of the sleeper effect, participants read an online news article (with anonymous comments in the comments section) and were asked about the article’s persuasiveness (Heinbach, Ziegele, & Quiring, 2018). Participants were 181 undergraduate students. The study examined whether the credibility of the website (credible or non‐credible source) and positivity of the comments (positive or negative comments) influenced participants’ opinions. They found that, similar to traditional discounting cues (source credibility), participants felt that articles with negative comments seemed less persuasive. In terms of the sleeper effect, they found that participants’ opinion of the articles that came with positive comments decreased over time, but not in the negative nor control conditions (Heinbach et al., 2018). The study, however, did not find the sleeper effect in terms of credibility of the source.
sleeper effect – the phenomenon by which a message that initially is not particularly persuasive becomes more persuasive over time because people forget its source
2 nd reading which i find useful is
Vaccination Attitudes
The results of scientific empirical studies show that vaccines are safe and effective in combating the spread of disease. However, there is a segment of the society that believe vaccines are linked to autism or that vaccination is unsafe. Discuss why some hold “anti-vax” attitudes? What is the source of misinformation? Hint: Cognitive biases and Overconfidence are two relevant concepts to explore.You may find the following article and videos helpful as you develop your argument.
Motta, M., Callaghan, T., & Sylvester, S. (2018). Knowing less but presuming more: Dunning-Kruger effects and the endorsement of anti-vaccine policy attitudes. Social Science & Medicine, 211, 274-281.
Video from the Washington Post:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VQti02x57bE
Vaccines—Calling the Shots Sneak Peek | NOVA: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8fW-r6cO3M
FRONTLINE | The Vaccine War | PBS: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VPOrnU3ImxI
You may find the following article and videos helpful as you develop your argument
Motta, M., Callaghan, T., & Sylvester, S. (2018). Knowing less but presuming more: Dunning-Kruger effects and the endorsement of anti-vaccine policy attitudes. Social Science & Medicine, 211, 274-281.
Reading -3 which i find useful are as follows
Readings:Readings given below which has to be used
SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORYDuring our discussion above, you may have noticed that effects such as deindividuation are intragroup processes. However, an important aspect of crowd behaviour—one that was overlooked by Le Bon, Allport, Zimbardo, and others—is its intergroup dimension (Reicher, 1984; Reicher & Potter, 1985). Stephen Reicher, a British psychologist, argued that in many crowd situations, there are at least two groups. This simple point was virtually ignored in all previous theories of crowd behaviour. For example, in the G20 summit demonstration in Hamburg, Germany, there were demonstrators and a large number of police officers, and these two groups were interacting. In other words, each group was acting in response to the behaviour (or even the expected behaviour) of the other group. This occurs even when people are protesting in the absence of another group, such as the police, a rival group of sports fans, or a rival group of political supporters. They’re usually protesting against another group, perhaps a ruling elite. Reicher’s insight has finally moved research into crowd behaviour beyond the “mad or bad” discussions that are over a century old now; he asserted that crowd behaviour is often intergroup behaviour, in terms of which the behaviour can make more sense—it is not simply mad or bad.The other important insight about crowds, which follows from the idea of crowd behaviour as intergroup behaviour, is that people in a crowd do not lose their identity in some way but instead assume a new social identity as a member of a particular group. According to Reicher (1984), people in a crowd, although they may lose some personal identity, adopt (if only temporarily) a stronger sense of social identity. Therefore, in crowds there is a change of identity rather than loss of identity. Reicher’s argument is based on the social identity theory of Tajfel (1982), which we will explain next.This alternative view of crowd behaviour helps explain the behaviour of demonstrators and police in Hamburg, Germany, during the 2017 G20 summit. The police adopted the identity and role of protecting the local and foreign government delegates. This shared identity created norms of conduct in that specific situation. The police acted by dispersing, intimidating, and arresting many demonstrators (who they perceived as a threat to the group they were entrusted with protecting, i.e., the state and non‐demonstrating majority). On the other hand, demonstrators shared a different social identity. They came together for a specific purpose (i.e., protesting against the G20 summit) and reacted to what they perceived as police aggression by targeting police property and vandalizing local shops and businesses (perceiving that the police, as representatives and guardians of the capitalist status quo, had violated their right to peaceful protest). Therefore, although both groups (police and demonstrators) were exposed to the same environment, their group membership (and their expectations of, and the behaviour of, the other group) determined the behaviour they engaged in.In sum, when people are in a group, and that group membership is salient, it’s their group goal and group identity that regulate their behaviour. Additionally, when examining collective behaviour, it’s important to realize that “the crowd” doesn’t exist in isolation; rather it can represent one group and there is often another group involved as well—even if that group isn’t physically present (e.g., in 2019 in London hundreds gathered to protest the king of Brunei’s law that has homosexuals sentenced to death). Therefore, as Brown (2000) notes, to understand what goes on inside a crowd, it’s important to examine crowds from an intergroup perspective. This is not to say that other perspectives are wrong or irrelevant, but to ignore the intergroup aspect of crowd behaviour is to ignore one of its important elements. Social identity theory, as we will now see, helps explain this aspect of crowd behaviour and other social behaviour (see Environmental Connections).According to social identity theory, each person strives to enhance his or her self‐esteem, which is composed of both personal identity and social identity (Tajfel, 1982). Because our group memberships influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour, we’re motivated to affiliate with successful groups as a way of increasing our own feelings of self‐worth (Smith & Tyler, 1997; Snyder, Lassegard, & Ford, 1986). In line with this, Van De Rijt, Akin, Willer, and Feinberg (2016) conducted a study in Alabama, the United States, that employing fake political petitions demonstrated that people, subconsciously, like to affiliate themselves with a popular political party, or a successful group. In turn, people can feel good about themselves by calling attention to their connection to successful people or groups (e.g., Indian Canadians who see the success of comedian Russell Peters, or those affected by cancer who watched Jack Layton became the leader of the official opposition while fighting the disease). In sum, people favour their in‐groups over their out‐groups in order to enhance their self‐esteem. Figure 9.2 presents the theory.social identity theory – a theory that posits that each person strives to enhance his or her self‐esteem, which is composed of two parts: a personal identity and a social identitySocial identity theory also posits that threats to one’s self‐esteem increase the need for in‐group favouritism (Tajfel, 1982). Therefore, people whose group is threatened and those who feel bad about themselves develop more in‐group identification and are more likely to derogate out‐group members (Forgas & Fiedler, 1996; Marques, Abrams, Paez, & Martinez‐Taboada, 1998). This view is sustained by Martiny and Rubin (2016), who showed that people sometimes join groups to increase their self‐esteem and, at times, their social status. Therefore, people are motivated to see their group in a positive light and favour their group. In‐group favouritism and out‐group derogation are particularly likely to occur under specific conditions—if status of the group is being threatened, if the status of the individual within a group is being threatened, and if the group is small.Each participant came into the lab to take part in a study on performance and was given an extremely boring task to complete—to move each of 48 spools of thread a quarter turn in one direction, then another quarter turn, then another quarter turn, and then back again to their starting position, for an entire hour. Then, after the participant was finally told that the experiment was finished, the experimenter asked for a favour. He explained that this experiment was not really on “measures of performance,” as the participant had been told, but was actually on the influence of expectations about a task on how people see the task. The participant was further told that, being in the control condition, he or she was not given any prior expectation about what to expect, but the next participant, who was due to arrive any minute, was in the “positive expectation” condition. Moreover, the experimenter told that the research assistant who was supposed to give the next student the positive expectations was running late, and it would be appreciated if the participant would be willing to stay and just tell the next participant that the experiment was really fun and exciting. Some of the participants were offered $20 (a considerable sum in the 1950s) to lie to the next participants, whereas others were offered only $1 to lie. All participants agreed to lie, and after doing so, they were asked by the experimenter what they thought of the experiment (on a 1 to 25 scale, with 1 indicating very unenjoyable).What do you think happened? Contrary to reward theory, those who were given $20 admitted that they found the task boring, as did those who were given no money. But what about those who were given $1 to lie? As shown in Figure 5.4, they actually claimed they sort of liked the task!This experiment demonstrates that receiving insufficient justification for engaging in an attitude‐discrepant behaviour can lead to attitude change. In other words, if you engage in a behaviour that is counter‐attitudinal, you must make some kind of a justification. If the external justification is high (“Well, I did get $20”), you will attribute your behaviour to external factors and not change your attitude (“Boy, that task really was boring, but worth it for $20”), but if the external justification is low ($1), you must explain your behaviour using internal factors (“Well, I must have at least liked the task a little”).Although the Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) study demonstrated the negative effects of insufficient justification—that people convince themselves they like something they didn’t really enjoy—this principle can also be used to promote positive behaviours. For example, researchers at Trinity University in the United States examined how cognitive dissonance techniques could be employed to prevent eating disordered behaviours (Black Becker et al., 2010). Participants were 102 female students who had eating disorders. All participants attended two sessions related to the thin‐ideal body and received homework brainstorming the costs of pursuing the thin‐ideal. It was found that when women engaged in this activity, their eating disordered behaviours decreased (Black Becker et al., 2010). In this way, the participants felt less justification for continuing to engage in ongoing eating‐disordered behaviours after engaging in activities to prevent these unhealthy behaviours. Similarly, and as described in the following Health Connections box, cognitive dissonance can be used to promote change in unhealthy behaviours in those with clinical diagnoses.GRIT STRATEGYThe strategy known as GRIT (which stands for graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension‐reduction) refers to a particular approach to resolving conflict that involves unilateral and persistent efforts in order to establish trust and cooperation between opposing parties (Linskold & Han, 1988; Osgood, 1962). In this case, one party announces its intention to reduce conflict and invites the other party to reciprocate. Then the first party carries out its tension‐reducing activities as planned, even if there is no immediate response. This increases the party’s credibility and may put pressure on the other party to respond accordingly. Once the other party acts, the first party quickly reciprocates. If the other party retaliates, the first party then quickly retaliates at the same level.GRIT (graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension‐reduction) – a strategy for resolving conflict that involves unilateral and persistent efforts to establishing trust and cooperation between opposing partiesGRIT STRATEGYThe strategy known as GRIT (which stands for graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension‐reduction) refers to a particular approach to resolving conflict that involves unilateral and persistent efforts in order to establish trust and cooperation between opposing parties (Linskold & Han, 1988; Osgood, 1962). In this case, one party announces its intention to reduce conflict and invites the other party to reciprocate. Then the first party carries out its tension‐reducing activities as planned, even if there is no immediate response. This increases the party’s credibility and may put pressure on the other party to respond accordingly. Once the other party acts, the first party quickly reciprocates. If the other party retaliates, the first party then quickly retaliates at the same level.GRIT (graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension‐reduction) – a strategy for resolving conflict that involves unilateral and persistent efforts to establishing trust and cooperation between opposing partiesFIGURE 9.5 FORMING A NEW GROUP WITH CROSS‐CATEGORICAL MEMBERSHIPParticipants who use the GRIT strategy are more likely to reach optimal agreements and feel differently about their interaction partner than those who use competitive strategies.One dramatic and effective example of GRIT was the disarmament of FARC, a Marxist group in Colombia who has engaged in armed struggle with the Colombian government for decades. FARC handed in thousands of weapons. When President Juan Manuel Santos came into power, he began secret talks with FARC commanders, which led to negotiations and a peace accord (Voa News, 2017). Since the peace accord, there has been a reduction in homicide and kidnapping rates across Colombia (Biettel, 2018).
In turn, people in collectivistic cultures should put less blame on obese people for their weight, and thereby show lower levels of prejudice and discrimination than people in individualistic cultures, who would be expected to place greater emphasis on the role of personal responsibility in determining weight. For example, a study that was conducted in China examined the attitudes of 297 nurse practitioners toward overweight patients. The researchers found that participants generally had neutral to slightly positive attitudes toward overweight patients, and they believed that being overweight was beyond the individual’s control. In comparison, in a cross‐cultural study that examined prejudicial attitudes against overweight individuals in the United States, Canada, Iceland, and Australia, it was found that participants from all countries attributed being overweight as related to having poor willpower and self‐control (Puhl et al., 2015).
In a longitudinal study consisting of 3,362 U.S. children from the fifth to eighth grade, researchers found that an increase in body size was associated with teacher’s negative perceptions of students (Kenney, Gortmaker, Davidson, & Austin, 2015). For girls, there was a marked reduction in their competence of reading ability and for boys, there was a reduction in their math ability. The results of this study demonstrate how stigmatizing attitudes against overweight children may influence school climate and teacher’s treatment of children. This study provides insight as to how stigmatizing attitudes against overweight children might potentially influence school climate and teacher’s treatment of children.There are, however, cultures where carrying more weight is clearly valued. For example, it has been reported for VICE News that in rural Mauritania young girls, starting from the age of eight, are force fed because fat women are traditionally viewed as more desirable. This reflects the belief that fat women are symbols of wealth and beauty and can find good husbands.STEREOTYPES ABOUT WOMEN.Cross‐cultural psychologists have examined development and socialization of gender stereotypes in many nations. One study of 3,323 participants from 26 countries found that women are perceived to be higher in traits of warmth, positive emotions, and vulnerability. On the other hand, men are perceived to be assertive, impulsive, and excitement seeking (Löckenhoff et al., 2014). Gender stereotype learning begins by age 5, accelerates in early school years, and peaks during adolescence (Best, 2010; Blum, Mmari, & Moreau, 2017; Williams & Best, 1990). Socialization within a culture plays a critical role in gender stereotype development. In a given culture, parents’ expectations influence children’s sex‐role behaviours, and children’s gender stereotypes reflect those of their parents (Best, 2004, 2010; Blum et al., 2017). Nonetheless, there are cultural differences in gender stereotypes and knowledge of stereotypical masculine or feminine behaviours. Hofstede (2001) found that in countries where the dominant culture is feminine, gender roles are less clearly delineated than in predominantly masculine countries. It’s more acceptable, therefore, for a father to stay at home and be a “house husband” in Sweden or the Netherlands than in Japan or Italy.Researchers Peter Glick and Susan Fiske developed a theory of sexism that distinguishes between hostile sexism and benevolent sexism, which we saw earlier, and tested their theory in 19 different countries (Glick & Fiske, 2001; Glick et al., 2004; Glick & Fiske, 2011; Glick, Berdahl, & Alonso, 2018). In some ways, sexist beliefs are very similar across different cultures:Hostile and benevolent sexism are correlated in all cultures, with hostile sexism predicting negative traits (e.g., uncooperative, rude, indecisive) and benevolent sexism predicting positive traits (e.g., cooperative, courteous, decisive).Although women show more rejection of hostile sexism than do men across cultures, both men and women commonly endorse benevolent sexism.Both men and women see men in more negative ways across cultures, but also see men as having more power.These hostile and benevolent attitudes toward women reflect and support gender inequality by describing men as inherently dominant.In other ways, cross‐cultural comparisons reveal different bel
Order from us for quality, customized work in due time of your choice.